Modified fuels and methods of making and using thereof

ABSTRACT

Described herein are modified fuels with improved properties. The modified fuels are more efficient when compared to conventional fuels such as gasoline. Additionally, the modified fuels burn more efficiently and produce fewer emissions. Finally, the modified fuels also do not require any modifications to existing engines.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation application of U.S. application Ser.No. 12/534,975, filed on Aug. 4, 2009, which claims priority to U.S.provisional application Ser. No. 61/086,224, filed Aug. 5, 2008, whichare hereby incorporated herein by reference in their entirety for allpurposes.

BACKGROUND

Due to rising oil prices and environmental concerns with increasedemissions, a number of alternative fuels and fuel additives have beendeveloped. A number of different approaches have been investigated toincrease the efficiency of fuels and reduce emissions. Examples ofalternatives to fossil fuels include the use of natural gas, propane,and electricity. Although these are viable substitutes for petroleumbased fuels, they require a large investment in automobile modificationand infrastructure to implement these technologies.

Another approach involves the use of alcohols in combination with fossilfuels. Alcohols have good combustion properties and are readilyavailable. For example, ethanol can be obtained from a wide variety ofsources such as, for example, starchy grains, potatoes, industrialby-products, and products of waste materials. Although the use ofethanol in combination with fossil fuels is a viable option, there aresome drawbacks with its use. When ethanol is blended with hydrocarbons,the resulting mixture has an unacceptably high rate of evaporation,which may restrict its use in certain regions having strict emissionsrestrictions. Gasoline blended with ethanol is very sensitive to water,which can result in limited phase stability limited phase stability canresult in significant engine problems such as, for example, such asstalling, fuel-line freezing, and the like.

The use of other alcohols has been investigated in view of thelimitations associated with ethanol. For example, the use of methanol isone way to increase the octane number and reduce emissions. However, theuse of higher amounts of methanol requires modification of the engine toavoid damage during combustion. For example, in order to operate aninternal combustion engine having spark ignition with a combustion fuelcontaining more than 5% by volume of methanol, the engine has to beequipped with methanol-resistant sealing materials. Moreover, similar toethanol, methanol has a high affinity for water, which can lead to phaseseparation when combined with gasoline.

Therefore, it would be desirable to have a fuel that burns cleaner(i.e., reduced emissions) and is more efficient (e.g., increased milesper gallon and horse power). It would also desirable that the use of thefuel does not require any modifications to the existing engine orrequire advanced technology to use the fuel. The modified fuelsdescribed herein address these needs.

SUMMARY

Described herein are modified fuels with improved properties. Themodified fuels are more efficient when compared to conventional fuelssuch as gasoline. Additionally, the modified fuels burn more efficientlyand produce fewer emissions. Finally, the modified fuels also do notrequire any modifications to existing engines. The advantages of themodified fuels described below will be realized and attained by means ofthe elements and combinations particularly pointed out in the appendedclaims. It is to be understood that both the foregoing generaldescription and the following detailed description are exemplary andexplanatory only and are not restrictive.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute apart of this specification, illustrate several aspects described below.

FIGS. 1-3 show the results of dynometer runs of severalcommercially-available race fuels versus modified fuels describedherein.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Before the present compounds, compositions, and/or methods are disclosedand described, it is to be understood that the aspects described beloware not limited to specific compounds, synthetic methods, or uses assuch may, of course, vary. It is also to be understood that theterminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particularaspects only and is not intended to be limiting.

In this specification and in the claims that follow, reference will bemade to a number of terms that shall be defined to have the followingmeanings:

It must be noted that, as used in the specification and the appendedclaims, the singular forms “a,” “an” and “the” include plural referentsunless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example,reference to “a lower alcohol” includes mixtures of two or more suchalcohols, and the like.

“Optional” or “optionally” means that the subsequently described eventor circumstance can or cannot occur, and that the description includesinstances where the event or circumstance occurs and instances where itdoes not. For example, the phrase “optional additive” means that theadditive may or may not be present in the modified fuel.

References in the specification and concluding claims to parts byweight, of a particular element or component in a composition orarticle, denotes the weight relationship between the element orcomponent and any other elements or components in the composition orarticle for which a part by weight is expressed. Thus, in a compoundcontaining 2 parts by weight of component X and 5 parts by weightcomponent Y, X and Y are present at a weight ratio of 2:5, and arepresent in such ratio regardless of whether additional components arecontained in the compound.

A weight percent of a component, unless specifically stated to thecontrary, is based on the total weight of the formulation or compositionin which the component is included.

Described herein are modified fuels with improved properties. As will bedescribed below, the modified fuels have several improved properties andcharacteristics compared to the base fuel. In one aspect, the modifiedfuel includes:

-   (a) a base fuel in the amount of greater than 40% by volume of a    gallon of modified fuel;-   (b) a lower alcohol in the amount of greater than 10% by volume of a    gallon of modified fuel; and-   (c) a triglyceride derived from a fatty acid comprising at least one    hydroxyl group,    wherein the modified fuel comprises a substantially homogeneous    solution, and the modified fuel does not contain (i) a surfactant    selected from the group consisting of a castor oil ethoxylate and a    polyethoxyethanol, (ii) additional naphtha not naturally occurring    in the base fuel, or a combination thereof.

In another aspect, the modified fuel includes:

-   (a) a base fuel;-   (b) a lower alcohol in the amount of greater than 10% by volume of a    gallon of modified fuel;-   (c) a triglyceride derived from a fatty acid comprising at least one    hydroxyl group; and-   (d) a terpene in the amount of less than 0.1% by weight of the    modified fuel.    wherein the modified fuel comprises a substantially homogeneous    solution. In a further aspect, the modified fuel includes:-   (a) a base fuel;-   (b) methanol in the amount of greater than 10% by volume of a gallon    of modified fuel;-   (c) ethanol in the amount of greater than 5% by volume of a gallon    of modified fuel; and-   (d) a triglyceride derived from a fatty acid comprising at least one    hydroxyl group,    wherein the modified fuel comprises a substantially homogeneous    solution.    Each component is described in detail below.

Examples of base fuels useful herein include, but are not limited to,any hydrocarbon fuel such as, for example, gasoline, diesel, kerosene,jet fuels, and the like. When the fuel is gasoline, it can be derivedfrom straight-chain naphtha, polymer gasoline, natural gasoline,catalytically cracked or thermally cracked hydrocarbons, catalyticallyreformed stocks, and the like. The gasoline can also be any grade ofunleaded fuel ranging from 85 to 100. The amount of base fuel used toproduce the modified fuels can vary depending upon the application ofthe modified fuel. In one aspect, the amount of base fuel is greaterthan 40% by volume of a gallon of modified fuel. In another aspect, themodified fuel contains from 40% to 80% by volume of a gallon of modifiedfuel. In other aspects, the base fuel is 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%,70%, 75%, or 80% by volume per gallon of modified fuel, where any valuecan provide an endpoint for a range (e.g., 45% to 75%, 50% to 80%). Inother aspects, the base fuel is about is 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%,70%, 75%, or 80% by weight of the modified fuel, where any value canprovide an endpoint for a range (e.g., 45% to 75%, 50% to 80%). The basefuel does not require any special processing when converted to themodified fuel. The base fuel can naturally contain components such asnaphtha; however, the preparation of the modified fuels does not requirethe use of additional naphtha not already present in the base fuel.

The modified fuels described herein contain one or more lower alcohols.The term “lower alcohol” as used herein is defined as ROH, where R is aC₁ to C₆ alkyl group. For example, the lower alcohol can includemethanol, ethanol, propanol, butanol, pentanol, hexanol, or anycombination thereof. The lower alcohol can also include differentisomers of the same alcohol. For example, propanol can includen-propanol or isopropanol. In certain aspects, two or more loweralcohols are present in the modified fuel. For example, methanol andethanol can be used to produce the modified fuel. The amount of loweralcohol used to produce the modified fuels can vary depending upon theapplication of the modified fuel. In one aspect, the lower alcohol isgreater than 10% by volume of a gallon of modified fuel. In anotheraspect, the lower alcohol is from 10% to 40% by volume of a gallon ofmodified fuel. In other aspects, the lower alcohol is 10%, 15%, 20%,25%, 30%, 35%, or 40% by volume per gallon of modified fuel, where anyvalue can provide an endpoint for a range (e.g., 15% to 35%, 20% to40%). In another aspect, the lower alcohol is methanol in the amount of10% to 40% by volume of a gallon of modified fuel. Alternatively, thelower alcohol is methanol in the amount of 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%,or 40% by weight of a gallon of modified fuel, where any value canprovide an endpoint for a range (e.g., 15% to 35%, 20% to 40%). Thelower alcohol can be any grade and does not require additionalpurification or special processing.

In certain aspects, the modified fuel contains a mixture of methanol andethanol. Depending upon the source of the base fuel, the base fuel maycontain small amounts of ethanol and other lower alcohols. However, inthis aspect, ethanol is an additional component added to the base fuelto produce the modified fuel. The purity of the ethanol used herein isnot relevant for producing the modified fuels. In one aspect, theethanol is E100, which is 98% ethanol and 2% gasoline. The amount ofethanol used to produce the modified fuels can vary depending upon theapplication of the modified fuel. In one aspect, the amount of ethanolis greater than 5% by volume of a gallon of modified fuel. In anotheraspect, ethanol is from 5% to 40% by volume of a gallon of modifiedfuel. In other aspects, ethanol is 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, or40% by volume per gallon of modified fuel, where any value can providean endpoint for a range (e.g., 15% to 35%, 20% to 40%). In anotheraspect, ethanol is 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, or 40% by weight ofa gallon of modified fuel, where any value can provide an endpoint for arange (e.g., 15% to 35%, 20% to 40%). The addition of ethanol canincrease the burn rate of the fuel, which in turn increases horsepowerand (efficiency) and reduces emissions.

The modified fuels contain a triglyceride, wherein the triglyceride isthe reaction product between glycerol and a fatty acid, and the fattyacid has at least at least one hydroxyl group. The fatty acid with atleast one hydroxyl group is also referred to herein as a “hydroxy fattyacid.” The significance of the triglyceride with respect to formulatingthe modified fuels is described below. The hydroxy fatty acid has thegeneral formula R′C(O)OH, wherein R′ is a saturated or unsaturatedhydrocarbon chain having from 10 to 25 carbon atoms, and at least onehydroxyl group is covalently attached to a carbon atom of thehydrocarbon chain. The hydrocarbon can be linear or branched. In thecase when the hydrocarbon is unsaturated, the hydrocarbon can have onecarbon-carbon double bond or multiple carbon-carbon double bonds.Examples of monohydroxy fatty acids (i.e., one hydroxyl group present onthe fatty acid) include, but are not limited to, hydroxynervonic acid,cerebronic acid, 10-hydroxy-20 decenoic acid, hydrox-2-decenoic acid10-phosphate, strophantus acid, lesquerolic acid, densipolic acid,auricolic acid, β-dimorphecolic acid, kamlolenic acid,8-hydroxyoctadeca-9.11-diynoic acid,8-hydroxyoctadeca-17-en-9.11-diynoic acid (Isanolic), or8-hydroxyoctadeca-13.17-dien-9.11-diynoic acid. Examples of polyhydroxyfatty acids (i.e., two or more hydroxyl groups) include, but are notlimited to, axillarenic acid, tetrapedic acids, byrsonic acid,9,10-dihydroxyoctadecanoic acid, phaseolic acid, phloionolic acid,Resolvin D1, 10,17S-docosatriene, or Resolvin E1.

The triglyceride can be produced from one hydroxy fatty acid, twohydroxy fatty acids, or three hydroxy fatty acids. In one aspect, thetriglyceride is produced from three hydroxy fatty acids, where thetriglyceride has three hydroxy fatty acid residues. In one aspect, thehydroxy fatty acid is the same fatty acid. In other aspects, two orthree different hydroxy fatty acids can be used to produce thetriglyceride. It is also contemplated that mono- and diglycerides canalso be present in small amounts.

In other aspects, the triglyceride can be produced from a combination ofnon-hydroxy fatty acids and hydroxy fatty acids. Thus, in this aspect,the triglyceride has at least one hydroxy fatty acid residue and atleast one non-hydroxy fatty acid. Examples of non-hydroxy fatty acidsinclude, but are not limited to, butanoic acid, hexanoic acid, octanoicacid, decanoic acid, dodecanoic acid, tetradecanoic acid, hexadecanoicacid, octadecanoic acid, eicosanoic acid, docosanoic acid, tetracosanoicacid, myristoleic acid, palmitoleic acid, oleic acid, linoleic acid,α-linolenic acid, arachidonic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid, erucic acid,or docosahexaenoic acid. In other aspects, a triglyceride derived fromat least one hydroxy fatty acid can be used in combination with one ormore triglycerides that are not derived from a hydroxy fatty acid.

In one aspect, the triglyceride having at least one hydroxyl group iscastor oil. Castor oil is a triglyceride composed predominantly ofricinoleic acid residues. Castor oil also contains small amounts ofoleic acid residues and linoleic acid residues. Different grades ofcastor oil can be used herein. In one aspect, the castor oil is palepressed or AA standard castor oil, where the castor oil is obtained fromthe first pressing of the castor bean. Pale pressed castor oil isgenerally lighter in color and lower in acidity. Another grade of castoroil useful herein is #1 imported, also known as industrial castor oil,which is obtained from a mixture of the first pressing and the secondphase of production followed by solvent extraction. Examples of castoruseful herein include Baker's Grade AA castor oil and castor oilmanufactured by Klotz (e.g., Klotz Benol).

The amount of triglyceride used to produce the modified fuels can varydepending upon the application of the modified fuel. In general, smallamounts of triglyceride are needed to produce the stable fuels describedherein. If an excess of triglyceride is used, the emissions can beadversely affected. In one aspect, triglyceride is from 5 mL to 30 mLper gallon of modified fuel. In other aspects, the amount oftriglyceride is 5 mL, 10 mL, 15 mL, 20 mL, 25 mL, or 30 mL per gallon ofmodified fuel, where any value can provide an endpoint for a range(e.g., 15 mL to 30 mL, 5 mL to 20 mL). In another aspect, the amount oftriglyceride is less than 1% by volume, less than 0.75% by volume, orless than 0.50% by volume of the modified fuel. In a further aspect, thetriglyceride is castor from 6 mL to 26 mL by volume per gallon ofmodified fuel. In another aspect, the amount of triglyceride is lessthan 1% by weight, less than 0.75% by weight, or less than 0.50% byweight of the modified fuel.

In certain aspects, the triglyceride can be modified to enhance thehydrophilic and/or hydrophobic properties of the compound. In oneaspect, one or more fatty acid residues of the triglyceride can besubstituted with a polyalkylene group. For example, the triglyceride canbe an ethoxylated castor oil. The term “ethoxylated castor oil” is alsoreferred to in the art as polyoxyl castor oil, polyethylene glycolcastor oil, or polyethoxylated castor oil, where one of the fatty acidresidues is substituted with a polyethylene glycol unit. By varying thedegree of substitution and the length of the polyalkylene group, thehydrophilic properties of the triglyceride can be modified. In oneaspect, the ethoxylated triglyceride can be products sold under thetradename Croduret manufactured by Croda Chemicals LTD. and E-Z-MULSE™manufactured by Florida Chemical Company.

The modified fuels described herein can include additional componentsdepending upon the application of the fuel as well as the desiredproperties of the fuel. In one aspect, the modified fuel can include oneor more natural oils. The term “natural oil” as used herein includesnaturally occurring oils that are derived from animal or plant sources.Examples of natural oils include, but are not limited to, coconut oil,babassu oil, palm kernel oil, palm oil, olive oil, rape oil, beef tallowoil, whale oil, sunflower, cottonseed oil, linseed oil, tung oil, tallowoil, lard oil, peanut oil, soya oil, or any combination thereof. In oneaspect, the natural oil is olive such as, for example, virgin olive oil,refined olive oil, and pomace olive oil. The olive oil generally doesnot contain any particulate matter such as pulp and the like. Thus, theolive oil can be naturally derived or, in the alternative, derived fromchemical techniques to provide the olive oil useful herein. Not wishingto be bound by theory, the natural oil increases horsepower as well asreduce emissions by creating more oxygen in the exhaust stream.

The amount of natural oil used to produce the modified fuels can varydepending upon the application of the modified fuel. In one aspect,natural oil is from 0.01 mL to 1 mL per gallon of modified fuel. Inother aspects, the amount of natural oil is 0.01 mL, 0.05 mL, 0.10 mL,0.20 mL, 0.30 mL, 0.40 mL, 0.50 mL, 0.60 mL, 0.70 mL, 0.80 mL, 0.90 mL,or 1.00 mL per gallon of modified fuel, where any value can provide anendpoint for a range (e.g., 0.01 mL to 0.50 mL, 0.10 mL to 0.80 mL). Ina further aspect, the natural oil is olive oil from 0.05 mL to 0.60 mLper gallon of modified fuel.

In another aspect, the modified fuel can include one or more terpenes.Terpenes are natural or synthetic compounds derived from one or moreisoprene units. Examples of terpenes useful herein include, but are notlimited to, hemiterpenes (e.g., prenol and isovaleric acid),monoterpenes (e.g., geraniol, limonene and terpineol), sesquiterpenes(e.g., farnesol), diterpenes (e.g., cafestol, kahweol, cembrene andtaxadiene), sesterterpenes, triterpenes (e.g., squalene), tetraterpenes(e.g, lycopene), and polyterpenes. In one aspect, the terpene is analpha-pinene, a limonene (D- or L-), a menthol, a linalool, a terpinene,a camphene, a careen, or any combination thereof. In another aspect, theterpene is limonene present in the gasoline additive Ecotane®manufactured by T2 Labs. Not wishing to be bound by theory, the terpeneincreases oxygen content of the modified fuel. Additionally, the terpenehelps the modified fuel burn completely within the engine cylinder,which prevents excess residual fuel from being introduced into theatmosphere as well as prevents residue formation in the engine.

The amount of terpene used to produce the modified fuels can varydepending upon the application of the modified fuel. In one aspect, theterpene is from 0.01 mL to 1 mL per gallon of modified fuel. In otheraspects, the amount of terpene is 0.01 mL, 0.05 mL, 0.10 mL, 0.20 mL,0.30 mL, 0.40 mL, 0.50 mL, 0.60 mL, 0.70 mL, 0.80 mL, 0.90 mL, or 1.00mL per gallon of modified fuel, where any value can provide an endpointfor a range (e.g., 0.01 mL to 0.50 mL, 0.10 mL to 0.80 mL). In anotheraspect, the amount of terpene is less than 1% by volume, less than 0.75%by volume, less than 0.50% by volume, less than 0.25% by volume, or lessthan 0.10% by volume of the modified fuel. In a further aspect, theterpene is limonene from 0.01 mL to 0.45 mL per gallon of modified fuel.In another aspect, the terpene is present in the amount of less than0.1% by weight, less than 0.075% by weight, less than 0.05% by weight,or less than 0.025% by weight of the modified fuel.

In other aspects, the modified fuel includes a lubricating oil.Depending upon the amount of lower alcohol that is used to formulate themodified fuel, the amount and type of lubricating fuel can vary. Ingeneral, when higher amounts of lower alcohol are present in themodified fuel, a lubricating oil can be used to lubricate and protectengine parts during combustion. The lubricating oil can be a syntheticor natural material. For example, the natural oils described herein canbe used alone or in combination with other materials and perform as alubricating oil. In one aspect, the lubricating oil is a synthetic oilcomposed of a polyol. A “polyol” as used herein is a compound with twoor more hydroxyl groups. For example, the polyol can be ethylene glycol.Alternatively, the polyol can be a polymer such as, for example,polyethylene glycol. The amount of polyol present in the lubricating oilcan range from 50% to 90% by weight of the lubricating oil. Lubricatingoils useful herein include, but are not limited to, Klotz TechniplateKL200 manufactured by Klotz Synthetic Lubricants, Redline AllsportSynthetic 2-Stroke oil manufactured by Red Line Synthetic Oil Corp., andLucas 2-Stroke Synthetic manufactured by Lucas Oil Products Inc. Theamount of lubricating oil used to produce the modified fuels can varydepending upon the application of the modified fuel. In one aspect, thelubricating oil is from 5 mL to 40 mL per gallon of modified fuel. Inother aspects, the amount of lubricating oil is 5 mL, 10 mL, 15 mL, 20mL, 25 mL, 30 mL, 35 mL, or 40 mL per gallon of modified fuel, where anyvalue can provide an endpoint for a range (e.g., 10 mL to 30 mL, 15 mLto 35 mL). In another aspect, the lubricating oil is present in theamount of less than 1% by weight, less than 0.75% by weight, less than0.5% by weight, or less than 0.25% by weight of the modified fuel.

The modified fuels described herein can include additional additivesdepending upon the application of the fuel. Examples of such additivesinclude, but are not limited to, oxygenated aromatic compounds(synthetic or natural compounds), alkanolamine derivatives (e.g., thereaction product between an alkanolamine and synthetic or natural oil),naphtha (e.g., VM&P), antiknock agents, lead scavengers, ashlessdispersants, deposit preventers or modifiers, dyes, antioxidants, rustinhibitors, bacteriostatic agents, gum inhibitors, metal deactivators,demulsifiers, upper cylinder lubricants, corrosive and oxidationinhibitors, metal detergent additives, metal antiwear additives,antifoaming agents, or any combination thereof. These additives areoptional components, and are not required to produce the modified fuelformulations described herein. In other aspects, the modified fuels donot require the use of ethers such as, for example, methyl-tert-butylether (MTB) or benzene to oxygenate the fuel and increase horsepower.

The modified fuels can be used in a variety of different engines. Forexample, the modified fuels can be used in all internal combustionengines including spark ignited (gasoline) and compression ignited(diesel) engines. The fuels can be used in mobile engines such as, forexample, locomotive engines, marine engines, automotive engines (e.g.,domestic and racing), motorcycle engines, truck engines, airplaneengines and the like, as well as stationary application such as powerplants.

The engines may be two-cycle or four-cycle. The engines do not requireany modification prior to use of the modified fuels. For example, 87 to93 grade gasoline currently used to power automobiles can be substitutedwith the modified fuels described herein without any modification toautomobile engine.

The modified fuels described herein provide numerous advantages overexisting fuels. As mentioned above, the use of the modified fuels doesnot require any modifications to the existing engine. The modified fuelsfor the most part burn completely within the engine cylinder, which isdue in large part to the presence of the higher amounts of lower alcohol(e.g., methanol) present in the modified fuels. The process of makingthe modified fuels is described in detail below. With respect to burningmore efficiently within the engine, the modified fuels have numerousadvantages. For example, the modified fuels increase engine life bypreventing residues from forming within the engine, which is a leadingcause of engine failure. In addition to prolonging engine life, themodified fuels enhance the efficiency of the fuel burning vehicle. Theterm “enhance” as used herein is any improvement exhibited by themodified fuels versus a control (e.g., conventional gasoline). Becausethe modified fuels burn more completely within the engine, less fuel iswasted and, thus, the engine is much more efficient (e.g., increasedmiles per gallon).

Another important advantage with respect to modified fuels is that theengine produces fewer emissions. With increased combustion within theengine, less fuel is converted to toxic materials such as, for example,hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen oxide. Aswill be shown in the Examples below, the modified fuels substantiallyreduce or completely prevent the emissions of certain materials basedupon standard emission tests such as the ASM2 25/25 test (25 MPH flat)and 50/15 test (50 MPH uphill). Indeed, the one of the main by-productsof combustion of the modified fuels is oxygen. Not wishing to be boundby theory, the modified fuels described herein are highly oxygenated,which helps reduce carbon monoxide emissions.

In addition to the advantages described above, the modified fuelsdescribed herein provide improved horsepower versus conventional fuelsbased on dynometer runs. As shown in the Examples, the modified fuelscan increase horsepower by up to 2% when compared tocommercially-available fuels. This is particularly important in racefuels, where highly toxic and flammable fuels are used. Not wishing tobe bound by theory, it is believed the increased horsepower is due tothe higher oxygen content in the fuel, which is due to the presence ofhigher amounts of lower alcohol present in the fuel. For example, themodified fuels have an oxygen weight percentage from 2% to 25%, from 5%to 20%, 5% to 15%, or from 8% to 12%. As a comparison, gasoline has anoxygen weight percentage of close to zero percent.

The modified fuels described herein can be designed for specificapplications. For example, the modified fuels can be formulated for usein domestic engines such as, for example, automobiles and motorcycles.In one aspect, the modified fuel includes the following components:

-   (a) a base fuel in the amount of 40% to 80% by volume of a gallon of    modified fuel;-   (b) a lower alcohol in the amount of 10% to 40% by volume of a    gallon of modified fuel, wherein the lower alcohol is not ethanol;-   (c) ethanol in the amount of 5% to 40% by volume of a gallon of    modified fuel;-   (d) a triglyceride comprising castor oil present in the amount of 5    mL to 30 mL per gallon of modified fuel;-   (e) olive oil present in the amount of 0.01 mL to 1 mL per gallon of    modified fuel; and-   (f) limonene present in the amount of 0.01 mL to 1 mL per gallon of    modified fuel.

In another aspect, the modified fuel is composed of:

-   (a) gasoline in the amount of 65% to 75% by volume of a gallon of    modified fuel;-   (b) methanol in the amount of 10% to 20% by volume of a gallon of    modified fuel;-   (c) ethanol in the amount of 10% to 20% by volume of a gallon of    modified fuel;-   (d) castor oil present in the amount of 10 mL to 20 mL per gallon of    modified fuel;-   (e) olive oil present in the amount of 0.01 mL to 0.1 mL per gallon    of modified fuel;-   (f) limonene present in the amount of 0.01 mL to 0.1 mL per gallon    of modified fuel; and-   (g) a lubricating oil present in the amount of 10 mL to 20 mL per    gallon of modified fuel.

In another aspect, the modified fuel has the following components whenused in domestic engines: 70% gasoline by volume per gallon of modifiedfuel, 15% methanol by volume per gallon of modified fuel, 15% ethanol byvolume per gallon of modified fuel, 16 ml of lubricating oil (e.g., KL200 Synthetic lubricant) per gallon of modified fuel, 14 ml of castoroil per gallon of modified fuel, 0.05 ml virgin olive oil per gallon ofmodified fuel, and 0.05 ml of limonene per gallon of modified fuel.

In other aspects, the modified fuels can be formulated as race fuels forhigh-performance vehicles. In one aspect, the modified fuel is composedof:

-   (a) gasoline in the amount of 40% to 60% by volume of a gallon of    modified fuel;-   (b) methanol in the amount of 20% to 30% by volume of a gallon of    modified fuel, wherein the lower alcohol is not ethanol;-   (c) ethanol in the amount of 20% to 30% by volume of a gallon of    modified fuel;-   (d) castor oil present in the amount of 15 mL to 25 mL by volume per    gallon of modified fuel;-   (e) olive oil present in the amount of 0.05 mL to 0.1 mL per gallon    of modified fuel;-   (f) limonene present in the amount of 0.01 mL to 0.1 mL per gallon    of modified fuel; and-   (g) a lubricating oil present in the amount of 25 mL to 35 mL per    gallon of modified fuel.

In another aspect, the modified fuel has the following components whenused in race engines: 50% gasoline by volume per gallon of modifiedfuel, 25% methanol by volume per gallon of modified fuel, 25% ethanol byvolume per gallon of modified fuel, 28 ml of lubricating oil (e.g., KL200 Synthetic lubricant) per gallon of modified fuel, 19 ml of castoroil per gallon of modified fuel, 0.07 ml of virgin olive oil per gallonof modified fuel, and 0.05 ml of limonene per gallon of modified fuel.With respect to the racing fuels, higher amounts of lower alcohol arepresent when compared to the modified fuels used in domestic engines.

The modified fuels described herein contain high amounts of one or morelower alcohol in combination with a base fuel. In general, loweralcohols such methanol and ethanol have the tendency to absorb water.When combined with fuels such as gasoline, methanol and ethanol canphase separate when contaminated with water. This is undesirable, asthis leads to unpredictable performance of the fuel (e.g., decreasedefficiency, increased emissions, etc.). Additionally, methanol isextremely corrosive to engine parts such as aluminum and magnesium;therefore, it is desirable to incorporate higher amounts of loweralcohol into base fuels without undesirable side-effects of phaseseparation. Currently, fuels that contain lower alcohols are veryunstable and require special handling and storage for the reasonsdiscussed above.

The modified fuels described herein are substantially homogenoussolutions that can be stored for extended periods of time. The phrase“substantially homogenous solution” as used herein is a solution that isclear with little to no phase separation or particulate matter insolution. The modified fuels described herein are stable (i.e.,substantially homogeneous) at room temperature and require no specialhandling or storage. This is yet another advantage of the fuelsdescribed herein where conventional fuels are unstable over time, whichleads to inconsistent performance and fluctuations in emissions. Theabsence of phase separation also prevents the formation of depositswithin the engine as well as prevent the destruction of engine parts.The modified fuels have a specific gravity greater than 0.71, or from0.715 to 0.795 at 60° F. The specific gravity of the modified fuels canbe maintained for extended periods of time, which is also indicativethat the modified fuels are stable and not susceptible to contaminationby water. In general, the modified fuels contain little if any water(e.g., less than 0.5% wt, less than 0.4% wt, less than 0.3% wt, lessthan 0.2% wt, or less than 0.1% wt). For example, the modified fuelsdescribed herein are stable at room temperature to at least 90 dayswithout undergoing phase separation. Additionally, the modified fuelsare stable at low temperatures (e.g., subzero temperatures) and show nosigns of phase separation. Not wishing to be bound by theory, it isbelieved that the presence of the triglyceride derived from a fatty acidwith at least one hydroxyl group helps make the hydrophilic loweralcohol more compatible with the hydrophobic base fuel. In the absenceof the triglyceride, the lower alcohol is not compatible with the basefuel, and phase separation is observed. Thus, additional components suchas surfactants (e.g., polyethoxyethanol non-ionic surfactants such asTriton X-100, Triton X-114 (octylphenoxy polyethoxy-ethanol), and TritonX-110, and glycol ethers such as ethylene glycol monobutyl ether) arenot required to produce stable fuels.

The process for making the modified fuels generally involves mixing thebase fuel, lower alcohol, and triglyceride for a sufficient time andtemperature until a substantially homogeneous solution is produced. Thetime and temperature of the mixing step can vary depending upon therelative amounts of base fuel and lower alcohol used. Due to thestability of the modified fuels, no special equipment is needed toproduce and store the modified fuels. Additionally, the process can beconducted at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. Thus, any mixingequipment can be used herein. The modified fuels can be made by a batch,semi-batch or a continuous process. During the process, it is possibleto monitor and adjust the flow rates of the base fuel, lower alcohol,triglyceride, and other components to produce the modified fuel. In oneaspect, the modified fuel can be produced by splash blending theindividual components.

The order in which the different components of the modified fuel areadded and mixed can vary. In certain aspects, the triglyceride is addedto one or more lower alcohols followed by the addition of the base fuel.In one aspect, the process involves (a) admixing ethanol with methanolto produce a first mixture; (b) admixing the triglyceride with the firstmixture to produce a second mixture; and (c) admixing the base fuel withthe second mixture to produce the modified fuel. In certain aspects, oneor more additional components such as a natural oil, a terpene,lubricating oil, or a combination thereof can be admixed with the secondmixture prior to step (c).

In one aspect, the process involves (a) admixing ethanol with methanolto produce a first mixture; (b) admixing castor oil with the firstmixture to produce a second mixture; and (c) admixing olive oil with thesecond mixture to produce a third mixture; (d) admixing limonene withthe third mixture to produce a fourth mixture; and (e) admixing gasolinewith the fourth mixture to produce the modified fuel. In this aspect, itis possible to increase the horsepower of the fuel when limonene isadded in this order.

In another aspect, the process includes (a) admixing ethanol withmethanol to produce a first mixture; (b) admixing a lubricating oil withthe first mixture to produce a second mixture; (c) admixing castor oilwith the second mixture to produce a third mixture; (d) admixing oliveoil with the third mixture to produce a fourth mixture; (e) admixinglimonene with the fourth mixture to produce a fifth mixture; and (f)admixing gasoline with the fifth mixture to produce the modified fuel.Similar to above, it is possible to increase the horsepower of the fuelwhen limonene is added in this order.

In a further aspect, the process involves (a) admixing ethanol withmethanol to produce a first mixture; (b) admixing with the first mixturea composition composed of (i) a triglyceride derived from a fatty acidincluding at least one hydroxyl group; (ii) a natural oil; and (iii) aterpene, to produce a second mixture, and (c) admixing the base fuelwith the second mixture to produce the modified fuel. In another aspect,the process includes (a) admixing ethanol with methanol to produce afirst mixture; (b) admixing with the first mixture a compositionincluding (i) castor oil; (ii) olive oil; and (iii) limonene, to producea second mixture, and (c) admixing gasoline with the second mixture toproduce the modified fuel. Further to these aspects, a lubricating oilcan be admixed at any step.

In this last aspect, a composition for modifying the properties of abase fuel is composed of (a) a triglyceride derived from a fatty acidhaving at least one hydroxyl group, (b) a natural oil, and (c) aterpene. In certain aspects, the triglyceride derived from a fatty acidhaving at least one hydroxyl group, natural oil, and, terpene can bepremixed prior to admixing with the lower alcohol and base fuel. Inother aspects, the triglyceride derived from a fatty acid having atleast one hydroxyl group, natural oil, and, terpene can be part of akit. In certain aspects, a lubricating oil can be included in thepremixed composition or kit.

In one aspect, the process for producing the modified fuel includesadmixing (1) a base fuel; (2) a lower alcohol in the amount of greaterthan 10% by volume of a gallon of modified fuel; and (3) a terpene inthe amount of less than 0.1% by weight of the modified fuel, wherein themodified fuel comprises a substantially homogeneous solution.

In one aspect, the process for producing the modified fuel includesadmixing (1) a base fuel; (2) methanol in the amount of greater than 10%by volume of a gallon of modified fuel; (3) ethanol in the amount ofgreater than 5% by volume of a gallon of modified fuel; and (4) atriglyceride derived from a fatty acid comprising at least one hydroxylgroup, wherein the modified fuel comprises a substantially homogeneoussolution.

The amounts of each component in the premix composition or kit are thesame as those discussed above. In one aspect, the premix composition orkit includes (1) castor oil in the amount of 15 mL to 25 mL per gallonof modified fuel; (2) olive oil present in the amount of 0.05 mL to 0.1mL per gallon of modified fuel; and (3) limonene is present in theamount of 0.01 mL to 0.1 mL per gallon of modified fuel. In anotheraspect, the triglyceride is castor oil in the amount of less than 0.5%by weight per gallon fuel and the terpene is limonene in the amount ofless than 0.1% by weight per gallon of fuel.

The modified fuels described herein possess numerous advantages comparedto fuels currently available on the market. For example, the modifiedfuels can enhance the efficiency of a fuel burning vehicle whenintroduced into the engine of the vehicle. In one aspect, vehicleefficiency includes increased miles per gallon (MPG), increasedhorsepower, increased octane, or any combination thereof. In otheraspects, the modified fuels can reduce the emissions of a fuel burningvehicle, where the emission includes, but is not limited to, hydrocarbonemissions, carbon monoxide emissions, carbon dioxide emissions, nitrogenoxide emissions, or any combination thereof. In other aspects, when thebase fuel is a low octane fuel (e.g., 70 octane), the octane of the basefuel can be raised significantly by the addition of the componentsdescribed herein (e.g., lower alcohol, triglyceride, etc.). Thus, a basefuel that has an unacceptable octane value can be raised so that theresultant modified fuel can be used in a number of different engines.

It is understood that any given particular aspect of the disclosedcompositions and methods can be easily compared to the specific examplesand embodiments disclosed herein, including the non-polysaccharide basedreagents discussed in the Examples. By performing such a comparison, therelative efficacy of each particular embodiment can be easilydetermined. Particularly preferred compositions and methods aredisclosed in the Examples herein, and it is understood that thesecompositions and methods, while not necessarily limiting, can beperformed with any of the compositions and methods disclosed herein.

EXAMPLES

The following examples are put forth so as to provide those of ordinaryskill in the art with a complete disclosure and description of how thecompounds, compositions, and methods described and claimed herein aremade and evaluated, and are intended to be purely exemplary and are notintended to limit the scope of what the inventors regard as theirinvention. Efforts have been made to ensure accuracy with respect tonumbers (e.g., amounts, temperature, etc.) but some errors anddeviations should be accounted for. Unless indicated otherwise, partsare parts by weight, temperature is in ° C. or is at ambienttemperature, and pressure is at or near atmospheric. There are numerousvariations and combinations of reaction conditions, e.g., componentconcentrations, desired solvents, solvent mixtures, temperatures,pressures and other reaction ranges and conditions that can be used tooptimize the product purity and yield obtained from the describedprocess. Only reasonable and routine experimentation will be required tooptimize such process conditions.

I. Emissions Testing

ASM2 Testing

With the ASM2 25/25 test (25 miles per hour on flat ground) for normalinternal combustion engines for automobiles, the following requirementsmust be satisfied:

-   1. the unused hydrocarbons out of the exhaust pipe according to the    EPA standards must not exceed 114 ppm (parts per million);-   2. the carbon monoxide out of the exhaust pipe must not exceed 0.63    ppm;-   3. the nitrous oxide out of the exhaust pipe must not exceed 796    ppm; and-   4. the CO+CO₂ must exceed a minimum of 6.0 out of the exhaust pipe.

With the ASM2 50/15 test (55 miles per hour up-hill) for normal internalcombustion engines for automobiles, the following requirements must besatisfied:

-   1. unused hydrocarbons out of the exhaust pipe according to EPA    standards are not to exceed 117 ppm;-   2. the nitrous oxide out of the exhaust pipe must not exceed 879    ppm;-   3. the carbon monoxide out of the exhaust pipe must not exceed 0.65    ppm; and-   4. the CO+CO₂ output must exceed a minimum of 6.0 ppm.

The modified fuel that was used in the following emission tests wascomposed of 70% by volume 87 octane gasoline, 15% by volume ethanol, 15%by volume ethanol, 12.57 ml of castor oil per gallon of fuel, and 0.5ounces per gallon of a composition composed of olive oil and limonene.

1992 Buick LaSabre Year: 1992 Make: Buick Model: LaSabre Cylinders: 6Engine: 3.8 Liters Trans: Automatic Odometer: 82295 Body: Sedan Weight:3750 lbs. GVWR: N/A VRT Record 00009957 Test ID: Free

ASM2 EMISSION TEST RESULTS 25/25 Test/25 MPH FLAT 50/15 Test/50 MPH UPHILL Reading Allowed Results Reading Allowed Results HC ppm 14 114 pass11 117 pass CO % 0.11 0.63 pass 0.14 0.65 pass NOx ppm 0 796 pass 1 879pass RPM 1456 2500 1532 2500 max max CO + CO2 15.2 6.0 min pass 15.2 6.0min pass

2002 Chevy Cavalier 2.2 Liter Engine 25/25 Test/25 MPH FLAT 50/15Test/50 MPH UP HILL Reading Allowable Results Reading Allowable ResultsHC-ppm 0013 114 pass 0008 117 pass CO % 00.00 0.63 pass 00.00 0.65 passNOx-ppm 0010 796 pass 0015 879 pass RPM 1866 2500 1730 2500 CO + CO215.05 6.0 Min 15.4 6.0 Min

Based on the emissions testing using modified fuels described herein,both vehicles passed the emissions test. Essentially no nitrogen oxide(NOx) was produced in either car. Additionally, high oxygen content waspresent in the fuel based upon the CO+CO₂ values (approximately 15 foreach vehicle) versus the minimum requirement of 6.0.

Additional Testing

The exhaust pipe of a 2006 PT Cruiser was permanently extended so thatexhaust pipe enters the driver's compartment of the vehicle and emits100 percent of the engine exhaust back into the driver's compartment.The car was driven on a daily basis with the modified fuel as describedabove. The vehicle was driven by the co-inventor over 100 miles nonstopwithout experiencing any discomfort or side-effects.

II. Fuel Mileage

The 1992 Buick LaSabre described above got 23 miles per gallon using 87octane gasoline. Using the modified fuel used in the emissions test, thesame car got 49 miles per gallon with no brown nitrogen oxides observedin the exhaust. Increased gas efficiency was observed in Dodge Caravans,Chevy Trucks, Pontiac Grand Prix's and Ford Mustangs with the modifiedfuel.

In another test, when performing dynometer tests on a motorcycle or carengine, it was possible to complete more dynometer runs on a fixedamount of modified fuel described herein vs. gasoline. For example,during a dynometer run using a 1397cc motorcycle engine, when 180 mL ofgasoline was used only three HP dynometer runs could be performed.Conversely, when 180 mL of modified fuel (60% by volume 89 octanegasoline, 20% by volume ethanol, 20% by volume methanol, and 1 ounce pergallon of a composition composed of olive oil and limonene), five HPdynometer runs were completed. This test indicates a 20% increase infuel efficiency when using a modified fuel vs. gasoline.

III. Horsepower

FIGS. 1-3 are graphs comparing the horsepower of the modified fuel inSection II above with other types of commercially-available fuels.Dynometer runs were performed on different motorcycle engines and fuels.Referring to FIG. 1, VP C-16 race fuel, which is a leaded high octane(117) fuel used in turbocharged engines and nitrous applications, has anSAE horsepower 207.1. In the same motorcycle engine, a modified fueldescribed herein produced an SAE horsepower of 213.7.

In another dynometer run (FIG. 2), the horsepower of BP 93 octane and VPU4 were compared to a modified fuel. Referring to FIG. 2, the modifiedfuel produced more horsepower (175.9) vs. BP 93 octane (171.3) and VP U4(172.4). Similar results are shown in FIG. 3. VP Import race fuel, whichis a leaded high octane (120+) fuel used in turbocharged engines andnitrous applications had an SAE horsepower of 238 compared to 250 forthe modified fuel. When nitrous was added to the modified fuel, the SAEhorsepower jumped to 299.8.

In summary, the modified racing fuels described herein provide morehorsepower than commercially-available race fuels and reduced emissions.Additionally, the modified fuels are unleaded fuels, which are not thecase with current race fuels on the market, which are leaded. Finally,the modified fuels reduce engine wear. For example, after using amodified fuel in a racing application on a Suzuki 1300 Hyabusa over 100dynamometer runs and over 100 track runs, the engine was completelydisassembled with no damage noted.

IV. Certified Test Results

The fuel economy and efficiency of a modified fuel described herein wascertified by Roush Emissions Laboratory in Livonia Michigan. Themodified fuel (referred to herein in this example as “the XXX Fuel”) wascomposed of the following components: 70 percent base fuel 87 octane, 15percent methanol, 15 percent ethanol, and 5.5 ml of eco mix (60 vol. %Klotz KL200 lubricating oil, 40 vol % Klotz Benol castor oil, 0.02 mLlimonene, 0.02 mL olive oil) per liter of finished fuel.

The baseline fuel used in the experiments was Indolene Clear, which is a98 octane benchmark laboratory fuel used in the fuel industry to compareand evaluate commercial fuels. The modified fuel was evaluated undercity and highway conditions in a GT Mustang (V8 engine, 4.6 Ldisplacement). With respect to city conditions, three different phaseswere evaluated, which are as follows:

-   Phase 1: After initial start-up of the engine, the fuel economy and    emissions of the Indolene Clear and the XXX Fuel were determined.-   Phase 2: After running the engine for 10 minutes, the engine was    turned off. The engine was turned back on, and after one minute, the    fuel economy and emissions of the Indolene Clear and the XXX Fuel    were determined-   Phase 3: After running the engine for 10 minutes under city    conditions, the fuel economy and emissions of the Indolene Clear and    the XXX Fuel were determined.

The FTP-75 (Federal Test Procedure) was used to calculate a city averagefor fuel economy and emissions for Indolene Clear and the XXX Fuel basedon the data derived from Phases 1-3 (referred to as “Weighted FTP75” inTables 1-6). In the case of the highway average, the engine was allowedto run for 15 minutes at 70 mph, at which time the fuel economy andemissions of the Indolene Clear and the XXX Fuel were determined. Theresults of the tests are shown in Tables 1-6.

Turning to Table 1, the XXX Fuel showed a modest reduction in fueleconomy compared to Indolene Clear (17.3% city and 14.6% highway). Incomparison, E85, which is composed of 85% ethanol/15% gasoline, there isabout a 50% reduction in fuel economy compared to Indolene Clear.

Referring to Tables 2-6, the XXX Fuel out-performed Indolene Clear inevery emissions category. The XXX Fuel had a 26.4% (city) and 36.8%(highway) reduction of total hydrocarbon emissions compared to IndoleneClear (Table 2). In the case of carbon monoxide emissions, the XXX Fuelhad a 20.2% (city) and 14.3% (highway) reduction compared to IndoleneClear (Table 3). The XXX Fuel had a 2.2% (city) and 4.5% (highway)reduction of carbon dioxide emissions compared to Indolene Clear (Table4). With respect to NOx emissions, the XXX Fuel had a 45.7% (city) and39.3% (highway) reduction compared to Indolene Clear (Table 5). Finally,the XXX Fuel had a 56.2% (city) and 48.6% (highway) reduction ofnon-methane hydrocarbon emissions compared to Indolene Clear (Table 6).In summary, the XXX Fuel burns cleaner and produces less emissions thanthe benchmark fuel Indolene Clear while having comparable fuel economy.

TABLE 1 Fuel Economy [mpg] Weighted Combined Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3FTP75 Highway FTP + Hwy Indolene Clear (1) 16.85 15.99 19.97 17.11 30.9521.42 Indolene Clear (2) 17.20 15.86 19.03 16.91 30.64 21.18 IndoleneClear (3) 17.27 15.90 19.40 17.02 30.86 21.32 Average Baseline 17.1115.92 19.47 17.01 30.82 21.31 Standard Deviation 0.22 0.07 0.47 0.100.16 0.12 XXX Fuel Test 1 14.21 13.28 16.22 14.18 26.17 17.86 XXX FuelTest 2 14.17 13.31 16.14 14.17 26.56 17.93 XXX Fuel Test 3 13.98 13.0315.65 13.86 26.23 17.60 Average XXX 14.12 13.21 16.00 14.07 26.32 17.80Standard Dev 0.13 0.15 0.31 0.18 0.21 0.18 Average Difference −2.98−2.71 −3.46 −2.94 −4.49 −3.51 Average Difference [%] −17.4% −17.0%−17.8% −17.3% −14.6% −16.5%

TABLE 2 Total Hydrocarbons THC [grams/mi] Weighted Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase3 FTP75 Highway Indolene Clear (1) 0.393 0.046 0.064 0.123 0.024Indolene Clear (2) 0.211 0.027 0.047 0.071 0.019 Indolene Clear (3)0.259 0.026 0.040 0.078 0.018 Average Baseline 0.288 0.033 0.051 0.0910.020 Standard Deviation 0.094 0.012 0.012 0.028 0.004 XXX Fuel Test 10.208 0.028 0.032 0.066 0.015 XXX Fuel Test 2 0.258 0.022 0.029 0.0730.012 XXX Fuel Test 3 0.187 0.025 0.037 0.062 0.012 Average XXX 0.2170.025 0.032 0.067 0.013 Standard Dev 0.036 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.001Average Difference −0.070 −0.008 −0.018 −0.024 −0.007 Average Difference−24.4% −25.4% −36.1% −26.4% −36.8% [%]

TABLE 3 Carbon Monoxide CO [grams/mi] Weighted Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3FTP75 Highway Indolene Clear (1) 4.048 1.528 1.475 2.035 0.631 IndoleneClear (2) 2.983 1.061 1.498 1.580 0.767 Indolene Clear (3) 3.360 1.1660.983 1.570 0.510 Average Baseline 3.464 1.252 1.318 1.728 0.636Standard Deviation 0.540 0.245 0.291 0.266 0.129 XXX Fuel Test 1 2.8071.013 0.642 1.282 0.561 XXX Fuel Test 2 3.106 0.981 0.762 1.360 0.537XXX Fuel Test 3 2.956 1.190 0.962 1.493 0.538 Average XXX 2.956 1.0610.788 1.379 0.545 Standard Dev 0.149 0.113 0.162 0.106 0.013 AverageDifference −0.507 −0.191 −0.530 −0.350 −0.091 Average Difference −14.7%−15.2% −40.2% −20.2% −14.3% [%]

TABLE 4 Carbon Dioxide CO2 [grams/mi] Weighted Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3FTP75 Highway Indolene Clear (1) 519.3 552.8 442.3 515.5 285.8 IndoleneClear (2) 511.0 558.1 464.1 522.5 288.6 Indolene Clear (3) 508.3 556.8456.1 519.1 286.9 Average Baseline 512.9 555.9 454.1 519.0 287.1Standard Deviation 5.8 2.8 11.0 3.5 1.4 XXX Fuel Test 1 499.7 538.6441.3 503.8 280.6 XXX Fuel Test 2 500.7 537.7 443.3 504.1 269.3 XXX FuelTest 3 508.3 548.9 456.8 515.3 272.7 Average XXX 502.9 541.7 447.1 507.7274.2 Standard Dev 4.7 6.2 8.4 6.5 5.8 Average Difference −10.0 −14.1−7.0 −11.3 −12.9 Average Difference −1.9% −2.5% −1.5% −2.2% −4.5% [%]

TABLE 5 Oxides of Nitrogen NOx [grams/mi] Weighted Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase3 FTP75 Highway Indolene Clear (1) 0.0748 0.0006 0.0073 0.0178 0.0008Indolene Clear (2) 0.0887 0.0000 0.0110 0.0214 0.0002 Indolene Clear (3)0.0766 0.0019 0.0066 0.0186 0.0005 Average Baseline 0.0800 0.0008 0.00830.0193 0.0005 Standard Deviation 0.0075 0.0009 0.0024 0.0019 0.0003 XXXFuel Test 1 0.0292 0.0000 0.0045 0.0073 0.0000 XXX Fuel Test 2 0.02330.0000 0.0106 0.0077 0.0006 XXX Fuel Test 3 0.0668 0.0000 0.0093 0.01640.0003 Average XXX 0.0398 0.0000 0.0081 0.0105 0.0003 Standard Dev0.0236 0.0000 0.0032 0.0051 0.0003 Average Difference −0.0402 −0.0008−0.0002 −0.0088 −0.0002 Average Difference −50.3% −99.4% −2.4% −45.7%−39.3% [%]

TABLE 6 Non-Methane Hydrocarbons [grams/mi] Weighted Phase 1 Phase 2Phase 3 FTP75 Highway Indolene Clear (1) 0.3378 0.0240 0.0383 0.09290.0134 Indolene Clear (2) 0.1755 0.0120 0.0258 0.0497 0.0099 IndoleneClear (3) 0.2202 0.0113 0.0203 0.0571 0.0093 Average Baseline 0.24450.0158 0.0281 0.0665 0.0108 Standard Deviation 0.0838 0.0071 0.00920.0231 0.0022 XXX Fuel Test 1 0.1098 0.0038 0.0000 0.0247 0.0067 XXXFuel Test 2 0.1782 0.0000 0.0000 0.0369 0.0049 XXX Fuel Test 3 0.12160.0000 0.0023 0.0258 0.0051 Average XXX 0.1365 0.0013 0.0008 0.02910.0056 Standard Dev 0.0366 0.0022 0.0013 0.0067 0.0010 AverageDifference −0.1079 −0.0145 −0.0274 −0.0374 −0.0053 Average Difference−44.2% −91.9% −97.3% −56.2% −48.6% [%]

Throughout this application, various publications are referenced. Thedisclosures of these publications in their entireties are herebyincorporated by reference into this application in order to more fullydescribe the compounds, compositions and methods described herein.

Various modifications and variations can be made to the compounds,compositions and methods described herein. Other aspects of thecompounds, compositions and methods described herein will be apparentfrom consideration of the specification and practice of the compounds,compositions and methods disclosed herein. It is intended that thespecification and examples be considered as exemplary.

What is claimed:
 1. A composition comprising (a) castor oil; (b) oliveoil; and (c) a terpene, and optionally a lubricating oil, a loweralcohol, or a combination thereof, wherein the composition does notinclude a base fuel, and wherein the volume ratio of castor oil to oliveoil is 3,000:1 to 5:1 and the volume ratio of castor oil to terpene is3,000:1 to 5:1.
 2. The composition of claim 1, wherein compositionfurther comprises a lower alcohol, and the lower alcohol is methanol,ethanol, propanol, butanol, or any combination thereof.
 3. Thecomposition of claim 2, wherein the lower alcohol is methanol.
 4. Thecomposition of claim 1, wherein the castor oil comprises AA castor oil.5. The composition of claim 1, wherein the composition comprises alubricating oil.
 6. The composition of claim 1, wherein the terpenecomprises an alpha-pinene, a limonene, a menthol, a linalool, aterpinene, a camphene, a careen, or any combination thereof.
 7. Thecomposition of claim 1, wherein the terpene is limonene.
 8. Thecomposition of claim 1, wherein the terpene is limonene and thecomposition further comprises a lubricating oil.
 9. The composition ofclaim 1, wherein the terpene is limonene and the composition furthercomprises a lower alcohol.
 10. The composition of claim 1, wherein theterpene is limonene and the composition further comprises a lubricatingoil and a lower alcohol.
 11. The composition of claim 1, wherein thecomposition does not include naphtha.